太妃糖为什么叫太妃糖

Transcript

1. Prototypes, Papers, and Production Developing a globally distributed purging system

2. Bruce Spang @brucespang

3. Tyler McMullen @tbmcmullen

4. None

5. What is a CDN? You probably already know what a

   CDN is, but bear with me. A CDN is a “Content Delivery Network”. It’s a globally-distributed network of servers and at it’s core the point is to make the internet better for everyone who doesn’t live across the street from your datacenter. You might use it for images, APIs, …

6. Or websites. For instance, this website about how much GitHub

   loves Fastly… (Don’t worry, this is the last slide that is anything at all resembling a sales pitch.)

7. — well-known personality in community Or even this tweet of

   terrible advice. This tweet becomes more relevant as we go along…

8. So, our goal is to deliver whatever your users are

   requesting as quickly as possible. To do this, we have a network of servers all over the world which cache content.

9. Suppose you live in Australia

10. and you want to visit a site which is hosted

    on servers in New York

11. normally, you would go directly to this site half way

    around the world, and it would take some time. Note that this is greatly simplified, as your request would likely bounce between 20 or 30 routers and intermediaries before getting to the actual server.

12. with fastly, instead you would go to one of our

    servers in say, Sydney. normally, a copy of the website would be on that server, and it would be much faster.

13. If the content isn’t already there, we could request it

    from other local servers.

14. But ultimately, if it’s a new piece of content, you

    may still have to make a request to New York.

15. However, next time you or someone else visits the site,

    it would be stored on the server in sydney, and would be much faster.

16. Cache Invalidation however, once a site is stored on a

    server, you might want to remove it for some reason; we call this a purge. for example, you might get a DMCA notice and have to legally take it down. Or even as something as simple as your CSS or an image changing.

17. New Customer Use One of the points of Fastly though,

    from the very beginning, was making it possible to purge content quickly. For instance, The Guardian is caching their entire homepage on Fastly. When a news story breaks, they post a new article, and need to update their homepage as quickly as possible. That purge needs to get around the world to all of our servers quickly and reliably.

18. Step One Make it

19. rsyslog

20. E D F C A B Z So, here’s how

    it works. We have a bunch of edge nodes spread around world. A might be in New Zealand. F could be in Paris.

21. E D F C A B Z PURGE A purge

    request comes in to A. The purge could be for any individual piece of content.

22. E D F C A B Z PURGE A forwards

    it back to our central rsyslog “broker” of sorts, Z. Which might in, say, Washington DC.

23. E D F C A B Z PURGE And the

    broker sends it to each edge node. It also probably looks pretty familiar. It’s really the simplest possible way of solving this problem. And for a little while it worked for us.

24. Already deployed

25. Minimal code

26. Easy to reason about The way Rsyslog works is trivial

    to reason about. That also means that it’s really easy to see why this system is ill-suited for the problem we’re trying to solve. At its core, it’s a way to send messages via TCP to another node in a relatively reliable fashion.

27. Why does it fail?

28. High latency Two servers sitting right next to each other,

    would still need to bounce the message through a central node in order to communicate with each other.

29. Partition intolerant Obvious and enormous SPOF in the central node

30. Wrong consistency model This system has stronger consistency guarantees than

    we actually need. For instance, this system uses TCP and thus guarantees us in-order delivery. How does that actually affect the behavior in production?

31. A B 200ms Let’s say we’re sending 1000 messages per

    second. One message every millisecond. Let’s say the node we’re sending to is 200ms away

32. A B 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4

    3 2 1 That means that at any time there are ~200 messages on the wire.

33. A B 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4

    3 2 Let’s say a packet gets dropped at the last hop. Instead of having one message be delayed, what actually happens is the rest of the packets get through but are buffered in the kernel at the destination server and don’t actually make it to your application yet.

34. A B 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15

    14 SACK 13 12 The destination server then sends a SACK (which means “Selective Acknowledgement”) packet back to the the origin. Which effectively says, “Hey I got everything from packet #2 to packet #400, but I’m missing #1.”. While that is happening, the origin is still sending new packets which are still being buffered in the kernel.

35. A B SACK 1 Then finally, the origin receives the

    SACK and realizes the packet was lost, and retransmits it. So, what we end up having is 400ms of latency added to 600 messages. - 240,000ms of unnecessary delay Each of those could have been delivered as they were received. We and our customers would have been just as happy with that. But instead they were delayed. Thus, this is the wrong consistency model.

36. Step Two Make it Interesting

37. Atomic Broadcast read papers on Atomic Broadcast, because it seemed

    like the closest fit to what we’re trying to do
38. None
39. None

40. Strong Guarantees Too Strong

41. Thought Real Hard “Distributed systems, don't read the literature. Most

    of it is outdated and unimaginative. Invent and reinvent. The field is fertile. Really.”

42. E D F C A B Graph of Responsibility What

    we do is de?ne a “graph of responsibility”. This de?nes which nodes are responsible for making sure each other stay up to date. So in this case, A is responsible for both B and D.

43. E D F C A B Graph of Responsibility B

    is responsible for D and E.

44. E D F C A B Graph of Responsibility And

    so on...

45. E D F C A B PURGE So, let’s follow

    a purge through this system. A purge request comes in to A.

46. E D F C A B PURGE A immediately forwards

    it via simple UDP messages to every other server.

47. E D F C A B PURGE Each of the

    servers that receives a message then sends a “con?rmation” to the server that is responsible for it.

48. E D F C A B PURGE What is more

    interesting is what happens when a message fails to reach a server. If a server receives a purge but does *not* get a con?rmation from one of it’s “children”. It will send “reminders” to it.

49. E D F C A B PURGE So, in this

    case D and B will start sending reminders to E until it con?rms receipt. You can think of this as a primitive form of an “active anti-entropy”, which is a mechanism in which servers actively make sure that each other are up-to- date.

50. This also worked. We ran a system designed this way

    for quite some time. And once again, it worked.

51. Way faster!! This system is much faster. It gets us

    close to the theoretical minimal latency in the happy path. However, there are problems with it.

52. Arbitrary Partitions The graph of responsibility must be designed very

    carefully to avoid having common network partitions cause the graph to become completely split. Additionally, even if it is carefully designed it can’t handle *arbitrary* partitions. The best way to get close to fixing them is by increasing the number of nodes that are responsible for each other. Which of course increases load on the system.

53. Unbounded Queues Because every node is responsible for keeping other

    nodes up to date, it needs to know what each of its dependents have seen. Which means if a node is offline for a while, that queue grows arbitrarily large.

54. Failure Dependence And the end result of that is Failure

    Dependence. One node failing means that multiple other nodes have to spend more time remembering messages and trying to send reminders to the failed node. So, under duress this system is prone to having a single node failure become a multi-node failure, and a multi-node failure become a whole-system failure.

55. The problem with thinking real hard… So, I said that

    we designed this problem by thinking really hard. The problem with that is that we didn’t manage to find the existing research on this problem. It turns out that this type of system…

56. … was actually described in papers in the 1980s, when

    Devo was popular. The problems that we found with it are thus well-known. Luckily around that time, the venerable Bruce Spang started working with us.

57. Step Three Make it Scale This is where I came

    in, and started working on building a system that scaled better and solved some of the problems with the previous one.

58. I am Lazy Inventing distributed algorithms is hard As Tyler

    showed just now, it turns out that inventing distributed algorithms is really hard. Even though Tyler came up with an awesome idea and implemented it well, it still had a bunch of problems that have been known since the eighties. I didn’t want to think equally as hard, just to come up with something from five years later.

59. Read Papers Instead, I decided to read papers and see

    if I could find something that we could use. Because we had a system in production that was working well enough, I had enough time to dig into the problem. But why would you read papers?

60. Impress your friends! Papers are super cool and if you

    read them, you will also be cool.

61. Understand Problems Get a better sense of the problem you

    are trying to solve, and learn about other ways people have tried to solve the same problem.

62. Learn what is impossible Lots of papers prove that something

    is impossible, or show a bunch of problems with a system. By reading these papers, you can avoid a bunch of time trying to build a system that does something impossible and debugging it in production.

63. Find solutions to your problem Finally, some papers may describe

    solutions to your problem. Not only will you be able to re-use the result from the paper, but you will also have a better chance of predicting how the thing will work in the future (since papers have graphs and shit). You may even find solutions to future problems along the way.

64. Read Papers So I started reading papers by searching for

    maybe relevant things on google scholar.

65. Reliable Broadcast The first class of papers that I came

    across attempted to solve the problem of reliable message broadcast. This is the problem of sending a message to a bunch of servers, and guaranteeing its delivery, which is a lot like our purging problem.

66. papers from the 80s like “an efficient reliable broadcast protocol”…

67. …or “scalable reliable multicast”

68. Reliable Broadcast As it turns out, these papers were a

    lot like the last version of the system. They tended to use retransmissions, with clever ways of building the retransmission graphs. This means that they had similar problems, so I kept looking for new papers by looking at other papers that cited these ones, and at other work by good authors.

69. Gossip Protocols Eventually, I came across a class of protocols

    called gossip protocols that were written from the late 90s up until now

70. papers like plumtree

71. or sprinkler

72. “Designed for Scale” the main difference between these papers and

    reliable broadcast papers was that they were designed to be much more scalable - tens of thousands of servers - hundreds of thousands or millions of messages per second

73. Probabilistic Guarantees to get this higher scale, usually these systems

    provide probabilistic guarantees about whether a message will be delivered, instead of guaranteeing that all messages will always be delivered.

74. after reading a bunch of papers, we eventually decided to

    implement bimodal multicast

75. Bimodal Multicast ? Quickly broadcast message to all servers ?

    Gossip to recover lost messages two phases: broadcast and gossip

76. send message to all other servers as quickly as possible

    it doesn’t matter if it’s actually delivered here you can use ip multicast if it’s available, udp in a for loop like us, a carrier pigeon, whatever…

77. every server picks another server at random and sends a

    digest of all the messages they know about - a picks b, b picks c, … a server looks at the digest it received, and checks if it has any messages missing - b is missing 3, c is missing 2

78. each server asks for any missing messages to be resent

79. Questions?

80. after reading the paper, we wanted more intuition about how

    this algorithm would actually work on many servers. we decided to implement a small simulation to figure it out.

81. - we still wanted a better guarantee before deploying it

    into production. - the paper includes a bunch of math to predict the expected % of servers receiving a message after some number of round of gossip - describe graph - after 10 rounds, 97% of servers have message. - turns out to be independent of the number of servers - good enough for us

82. One Problem Computers have limited space started to implement it,

    ran across this problem

83. Throw away messages it needs to keep enough messages to

    recover for another server throw away messages to bound resource usage

84. - paper throws messages away after 10 rounds (97%) -

    this makes sense during normal operation where there is low packet loss - however, we often see more packet loss. we don’t deal with theory, we deal with real computers…

85. Computers are Terrible We see high packet loss all the

    time

86. - same graph as before, this time with 50% packet

    loss - 40% of servers isn’t good enough - we’ll probably lose purges during network outages, get calls from customers, etc…

87. The Digest “I have 1, 2, 3, …” why would

    the paper throw away after 10 rounds? digest is a list, which is limited by bandwidth need to limit the size of the digest

88. The Digest Doesn’t Have to be a List it can

    be any data structure we want, as long as another node can understand it.

89. The Digest Send ranges of ids of known messages “messages

    1 to 3 and 5 to 1,000,000" - normally just a few integers to represent millions of messages - we keep messages around for a day, or about 80k rounds

90. same graph, 80k rounds, 99% packet loss 99.9999999999% expected percent

    of servers to receive message this is cool

91. “with high probability” is ?ne as long as you know

    what that probability is

92. Real World

93. End-to-End Latency 74ms 83ms 133ms London San Jose Tokyo 0.00

    0.00 0.05 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10 0 50 100 150 Latency (ms) Density - usually < 0.1% packet loss on a link - 95th percentile delivery latency is network latency

94. End-to-End Latency 42ms 74ms 83ms 133ms New York London San

    Jose Tokyo 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10 0 50 100 150 Latency (ms) Density Density plot and 95th percentile of purge latency by server location Most purges are sent from the US

95. Firewall Partition firewall misconfiguration prevented two servers (B and D)

    from communicating with servers outside the datacenter. A and C were unaffected.

96. APAC Packet Loss extended packet loss in APAC region for

    multiple hours, up to 30% at some points no noticeable difference in throughput

97. DDoS ? ` The victim server was completely unreachable via

    ssh during the attack

98. So what? CONCLUSION - this is the system we implemented

    - but why does it matter how well it works? why should you care?

99. Good systems are boring BRUCE We can go home at

    night, and don’t need to worry about this thing failing due to network problems. We don’t have to debug distributed systems algorithms it at two in the morning. We’ve been able to grow the number of purges by an order of magnitude without having to rewrite parts of the system. etc...

100. What did we learn? so this is great for us,

     but why do you care about the history of how we built our purging system? handoff to tyler

101. — well-known personality in community So, this was supposed to

     be a sponsored talk, but instead of trying to sell you on Fastly, the reason we give this talk is actually as a sort of Public Service Announcement. Don’t heed advice like this. Certainly spend time inventing and thinking, but don’t ignore the research. It would have taken us quite a lot more trial and error to come to a system that we’re as happy with now and long-term if we hadn’t based it on solid research. And because we did, we now have a good foundation to invent new, and actually original, ideas on top of.

102. One weird trick… So, essentially, if you take away one

     thing from this talk, remember this one weird trick to save yourself 20 or 30 years worth of research work…

103. Read More Papers. Read more papers.

104. Thanks!

105. Questions? Come to our booth!